In Chapter 4 of Scaffolding Language, Scaffolding Learning, Pauline Gibbons contends that “spoken language and written language are better understood as a continuum rather than as two discrete forms of language” (Gibbons 2015, p.79). Language changes according to the context in which it’s being used beginning with a level that’s dependent on face-to-face spoken language and moving across a continuum to a written language from which a reader can construct meaning without having knowledge of the writer or being present in the moment the writer is explaining. In the lower level of spoken language, the speaker doesn’t have to use specificity because he can simply point or gesture using words such as this, that, or those because the audience is present to see where he’s pointing. As language moves across the continuum, the audience becomes further removed from the event so the need for specific vocabulary and grammar increases in order for the listener or reader to understand what’s being communicated.
When the audience doesn’t have any visuals to aid in comprehension, the speaker must use language that is closer to written language, describing their message in detail. “Chang and Wells (1988) refer to this more written-like spoken language as ‘literate talk’” (p.82) Engaging students in this type of literate talk serves as a bridge between speaking and writing in an academic register required in a school setting. Educators can intentionally plan activities that encourage students to move across the continuum so they can develop content vocabulary and apply their knowledge to their speaking and writing. The stages of these types of activities are listed below in an example lesson:
- Stage 1–Doing an experiment: Prior to introducing specific content related vocabulary, students are put into groups to do an experiment with magnets. The directions include students explaining their experiment to the rest of the class. So as they work together, they discuss how they will report their findings. Through their discourse, students’ phrases and sentences become longer and more concise as they prepare what to say.
- Stage 2–Introducing key vocabulary: Before students report to the class, the teacher introduced two key vocabulary words—repel and attract–while demonstrating using visual aids to increase student understanding.
- Stage 3–Teacher-guided reporting: In this stage, the teacher assists students as they report to help them move from the face-to-face spoken language level up to the literate-talk level using the new vocabulary words that were introduced. “….the teacher begins the exchange by inviting students to relate what they learned, rather than with a known answer or display question.” (p.89) Wait time is critical during this stage. Students’ language usage will increase and extend if teachers give them thinking time by waiting three or more seconds to respond to what the students have said. Asking probing questions to extend students’ thinking and reporting is also an important part of this stage.
- Stage 4–Journal writing: Giving students the opportunity to write about their experiences in their journals moves them further along the continuum between speaking and writing, closer to the academic level of writing used in school. Their writing should reflect the language that was used in the teacher-guided reporting and the journal entry will give them a foundation to build on later when they’re required to write a formal report detailing their knowledge of magnets.
Using these stages, including teacher-guided reporting, provides “authentic and meaningful context for students to develop the more academic registers of school” (p.92). The more traditional approach of teaching vocabulary is to introduce the key words prior to the lesson, to pre-teach the vocabulary. However, Gibbons believes that activating the students’ prior knowledge and giving them the opportunity to discuss the content with peers before teaching the new vocabulary provides a “cognitive ‘hook’ on which to ‘hang’ the new language”. (p.92) EL learners need to learn language in the context of the content areas they’re studying, not in isolated “pull out” classes that are separate from their learning and don’t provide opportunities for them to use the new language. Discourse opportunities provided by the teacher through intentional planning significantly impact EL learners’ language development. Students will not just pick up the language on their own without appropriate and effective activities that include structured classroom talk.
References:
Gibbons, Pauline. (2015). Scaffolding language, scaffolding learning Teaching English Language Learners in the Mainstream Classroom (2nd ed.). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann